Other Considerations when Pruning
1. Select only the parts to be pruned (minimal pruning)
2. Cut small branches first followed by large branches (minimal pruning only)
3. Always make a clean cut at the base of the branch and avoid leaving stumps where unwanted water sprouts may grow
4. Paint or spray the open cut with fungicide, tar or disinfectant when pruning is done during wet season
5. Remove all debris and maintain cleanliness of the surrounding areas.
Nutrient Management
In the first five years, the trees need high rate of nitrogen fertilizers. To promote faster vegetative growth, organic fertilizer application is also recommended. As the trees reach bearing age, more emphasis should be given on phosphorous and potassium. Phosphorous fertilizer promotes root and flower development while potassium is for fruiting and ripening. Apply fertilizercontaining 4-5% phosphoric acid and 8-15% potash.
Important Considerations in Fertilizer Application:
1. When applying fertilizer, dig a few holes (6-8 holes) around the tree or a canal within the area covered by the canopy. For big trees, follow canopy drip line.
2. The zone of maximum and efficient utilization of fertilizers is 30 deep and 100 cm from the trunk of 5-10 year old trees. This goes a little farther as the tree crown becomes wider
3. The preferred time of fertilizer application for non-bearing trees or at the juvenile stage is at the start and before the end of the rainy season, when the soil is still wet. Fertilizer can also be applied during the dry season if there is irrigation.
4. The procedure for fertilizer application is similar for both bearing and young trees.
5. At flowering, spraying of foliar fertilizer is recommended as supplement.
Flower Induction
In inducing mango trees to bear flower, the following should be considered:
1. Different mango varieties have varied flowering and fruiting habits. The ‘Carabao’ variety under normal conditions bears fruits every two to three years.
2. Chemical flower inducers should not be used under the following circumstances:
* When the tree is too small or still young
* When the leaves and buds are young
* When the tree is weak and sickly
* During rainy days
* Just after harvest or when the tree has fruits or is in flushing stage
3. High dosage of flower inducers (2.0 to 3.0% KNO3 ) should be used when:
* Trees are just starting to mature
* Leaves and buds are maturing
* The tree is healthy with vigorous buds and leaves
* During cloudy weather
* Sprayed six to seven months after harvest
4. Use low dosage of flower inducers (1.0 to 2.0% KNO3 ) when:
* Trees are big, old or fully mature
* Leaves and buds are fully mature
* Tree is healthy with dormant buds
* Sprayed during sunny weather
* Sprayed seven to nine months after harvest
5. Induce flowering only once a year
6. From flowering to harvest, it takes 7-8 months to rejuvenate and accumulate enough nutrients for the next fruiting season
7. Trees that bear fruits last season but have not flushed should not be induced to flower
8. Spraying should be done when the tree and leaves are dry and with no expected rain within the next 6 hours
Potassium nitrate is the generic name of chemical flower inducer in mango. The chemical symbol of this compound is KNO3. This contains 13% nitrogen and 46% potash, thus, 13-0-46. When sprayed, it supplies the potassium deficiency of the tree and in the process, induces flowering.
When spraying potassium nitrate, follow this simple steps:
1. Prepare a 1-3% solution depending on the condition of the tree.
2. Spray the leaves and branches totally wetting but not dripping.
3. Spray early in the morning (from sunrise to 9:00 am) or late in the afternoon (from 4:00 pm to 5:00 pm). This prevents leaf burning due to sunlight.
Water Management
For young mango trees, weekly manual watering should be done during dry months by saturating the soil with enough water followed by mulching. If drip irrigation is available, fertilizer application can be incorporated in the irrigation water.
For flowering trees, apply water weekly during flower initiation and fruit development and stop one month before harvest. Irrigate developing flowers and fruits to enhance fast development, minimize fruit drop and increase fruit size. The volume of water ranges from 60 to 100 liters per tree depending on size.
Pest Management
Fruit Protection
Wrapping or bagging of fruits is practiced in many areas because of the following:
* Minimizes incidence of fruit fly and other fruit insects
* Minimizes disease (fungal) infection
* Reduces incidence of mechanical damage
* Paper used serves as absorbent for latex flow during harvest
* Results to cleaner fruit skin and more attractive light green color
* Provides an estimate of harvestable fruits per tree
In general, bagging is recommended to protect fruits from pests and to reduce spraying of insecticides. This practice is done when fruits are about chicken’s egg size (55 to 60 days after flower induction)
Insect Pests
1. Mango leaf hopper
Damage: Sucking of plant sap causes withering and drying of tender shoots, flowers and very young fruits. In the process, insect secretes sticky fluids (honeydew) that promotes development of sooty mold, fungal disease.
Control: Spray recommended chemicals starting from flower/bud formation to fruit setting. Confidor is effective against hoppers.
2. Mango tip borer
Damage: Shoots wilt and terminal parts die. If infested, panicles break and the flowers shed off.
Control:
* Prune dead branches to discourage spread of insect. Burn parts that are affected.
* Since the adults start to destroy the flowers from the bud emergence to elongation, it is necessary to spray insecticides to protect these stages especially during hit months. Insecticides used for mango hopper control are also recommended for tip borer.
3. Twig cutters
Damage: This is very destructive during the dry season. When present, the number of flowers that will be formed is reduced. The most visible indication of the problem is the presence of dead twigs and leaves in the canopy.
Control:Pruning and burning e dead branches to discourage spread of insect. Protect flushes from adults by spray application of insecticide.
4. Pulp weevil
Damage: This is a unique pest since the larvae of the insect feed inside the fruit and destroy the pulp, yet the peel has no visible damage even up to harvest. The insect is present only in some parts of Palawan.
Control:
1. Pruning of crowded mango trees allowing light to penetrate in the canopy is unfavorable to the weevil. Dead or overcrowding branches should be removed.
2. Keep each tree free from weeds, fallen leaves, fruit droppings and other debris. Cultivation of soil is advantageous since this exposes and kills the weevil hidden in the soil after harvest. Burn infested fruits to eliminate sources of infestation during the next fruiting season.
3. For chemical control, Cypermethrin at 50 ml/100 li water provides good protection against the weevil. Fenvalerate and Carbaryl are also effective against the pest. The insecticide should be applied at 14 days interval from fruit set to full development of the fruits.
Note: Insecticides are not effective once the pest is inside the fruit.
5. Mango fruit fly
Damage: Adults lay eggs on mature fruits and larvae feed on the flesh. Affected fruits drop to the grown and are easily contaminated by microorganisms.
Control: Bagging, collection and proper disposal of fallen fruits and harvest at the proper stage of maturity. If chemicals have to be used, spray at 90 or 110 days after induction.
6. Mealy bugs
Damage: Attack newly-flushed leaves, flowers and fruits and suck vital plant saps. Affected parts turn yellow, dry up and eventually fall.
Control:Removal of infested fruits, flowers and leaves. Spray insecticides to kill ants associated with mealy bug.
7. Capsid bug
Damage: Attacks young leaves, twigs and fruits. Saliva of the insect is very toxic and the site of the puncture is marked by sunken blister. The lesions turn brown after 24 hoursbecoming black and scabby in 2-3 days. Infected young fruits fall prematurely. Locally, the damage is called ‘kurikong’ or ‘armalite’ or ‘buti’.
Control:Prune trees before induction, underbrushing areas around the tree, spray insecticide late in the afternoon and remove alternate hosts like cashew, guava and cacao.
8. Mango cecid fly
Damage:Adults, which are mosquito-like in appearance, lay eggs on new flushes. The larvae mine the leaves producing galls or swelling of tissues. Heavy infestation results to wrinkling of the leaves; the leaves remain yellow in color. Close examination of the leaves shows dark green, circular galls randomly distributed on the leaf blade.
Control:
1. Prune or cut infested leaves and burn.
2. Practice orchard sanitation. Underbrush weedy areas since adults stay in these areas.
3. Spray either Sevin, Decis, Karate or Stingray (3-4 tbsp per 16 liters water) to minimize damage.
9. Scale insect
Damage: In nurseries, leaves of grafted mangoes are readily infested with scale insects, causing them to dry and fall. On bearing trees, high populations of the insect cause blackening of canopy due to the growth of the fungus ‘sooty mold’. Affected leaves become covered with thin, black papery film which produces unsightly appearance. In addition, affected branches are deformed producing gall like protruberances.
Control:
1. Young scale insects are carried and distributed by red ants to different parts of the tree. To prevent infestation, destroy ants by spraying Malathion at 1 ½ tbsp per 16 liters water, Decis at 1-5 tbsp per 16 liters water or Karate at ¾ – 1 ½ tbsp per 16 liters water.
2. Prune and burn heavily infested plant parts like branches and leaves. This should be followed by spray application of insecticides recommended for this pest and application of high dose of nitrogen.
Important Diseases
1. Anthracnose
Damage: This is the most prevalent and destructive disease of mango both in the field and after harvest. Symptoms are exhibited not only on the fruits bust also on flowers and leaves.
Prevention and Control:
1. Field sanitation
2. Prune infected branches, burn them and bury the trash
3. Schedule flower induction after the rainy season or during the dry months
4. Include insecticide and fungicide when spraying flower inducer
5. Wrap the fruits 50-60 days after flowering to protect them from pests and diseases.
6. After harvest, practice hot water treatment
2. Stem end rot
Damage:This is another post-harvest disease of mango and appears during storage and transit. The disease occurs only in ripened fruits.
Control Measures:
1. During harvest, leave one centimeter pedicel attached to the fruit to avoid too much latex staining. The casual organism germinates and grows in the presence of latex.
2. Pack mangoes in boxes of two layers to avoid injury due to compaction
3. Do not use organic materials during packing
3. Scab
Damage: The disease occurs in nurseries and during moist weather. Damage occurs while fruit is still green
Control Measures:The methods of control are similar to that of anthracnose. However, scab is effectively controlled using copper fungicide.
4. Gummosis
Damage: This fungal disease causes stem bleeding, crown and root rot. Infection may start during the seedling stage and may appear during both dry and wet season.
Control Measures:
1. Plant in well-drained soil.
2. Disinfect nursery sites before planting with methyl bromide, Chloropictin or other fungicides
3. Avoid too close planting to allow aeration and ventilation.
4. Remove dirt, weeds or trash
5. Avoid dumpy soils for long duration at the base of the trees.
6. Cultivation to aerate the soil is necessary to reduce fungal infection
7. Prune crowded branches
8. Foliar spray of ethyl phosphate metaxyl ot prosethal at 2g per liter water every 80 days
9. Drench infected parts, exposed damage and cover with slurry of fungicide
5. Sooty mold
Damage:The causal organism (fungus) develops in the presence of honeydew excreted by insects like hoppers, scales and mealy bugs. As such, it stains the fruits and makes them look dirty and unattractive.
Control Measures:Spray insecticide to kill hopper, scales and mealy bugs. Bag fruits at 60 DAFI.
Integrated Pest Management
This involves the following practices:
1. Planting of healthy seedlings.
2. Proper land preparation and cultivation. This includes clearing and removal of infected plant residues in the field and exposing the soil to direct sunlight. This will help eliminate soil-borne pathogens.
3. Proper irrigation and drainage to avoid water logging and reduce water-borne diseases.
4. Correct distance of planting and row orientation. This will allow maximum sunlight penetration, aeration and ease of farm operations such as pest and disease control, cultivation, plowing, smudging, fertilizer application, harvesting, etc.
5. Introduction and maintenance of natural enemies and other biological control methods like entomophagous fungi against mango hoppers. Intercropping with trees that can repel harmful insects and serve as wind breaks.
6. Application of recommended fertilizers and soil conditioners, maintain the right pH of 6-7.
7. Practice of clean and sanitary culture. This includes pruning, weeding, thinning, cultivation and burning of infested debris.
8. Using insecticides and fungicides derived from plant extracts like neem, china berry and custard apple.
9. Use of baits and light traps for fruit pest (fruit fly and borers).
10. Monitoring of pest population and application of pesticide only when necessary.
11. Combine cultural, biological and chemical means to minimize pests.
Harvest Management
The following are the indications that mango fruits are ready for harvesting:
1. At 110 days (for very warm and dry environment), 120 days (warm climate) and 130 days (cool and high elevation) after flower initiation;
2. When the flesh is turning yellow;
3. When powdery deposit or “bloom” on the surface of the skin is detected;
4. When fruit has flattened shoulders at the stem end; or
5. When the pedicels of fruits turn dark green to brown in color;
6. 75% mature fruit samples sink when submerged in 1% salt solution
Harvesting by hand is the most effective way in order to avoid bruises or damage of the fruits. The best time to harvest is between 9:00 am and 3:00 pm since the tree and fruits are dry and the latex flow is minimal. Harvest with pedicel intact (1.5-2.0cm).
Trim off pedicels and let the latex dry before packing.
Post-Harvest Treatments
In order to sell quality fruits, the following post-harvest treatment are practiced:
1. Washing of fruits in water
– To remove dirt on the surface.
2. Hot water treatment
– This involves heating dipping the fruits for 5 to 10 minutes in heated water (52-55°C). This is followed by hydro-cooling (washing in cool water) and air drying.
3. Vapor Heat Treatment (VHT)
– This involves heating the fruit with water vapor saturated air until the fruit pulp reaches 46°C for 10 minutes.
Ripening of Fruits
Fully mature fruits may be induced to ripen faster and with uniform color. There are two ways to do this:
1. Use of calcium carbide (‘kalburo’) at the rate of 5 to 6 grams per kilo of fruit. This is done by wrapping the calcium carbide in paper or leaves and placed at the bottom of the container. The container should be covered for 2 to 3 days. For best result, allow fruits to produce yellow color and place ‘kalburo’.
2. Use of ethylene gas or ethyl water solution. The use of ethylene gas involves a chamber while in ethyl solution, the fruits are simply dipped in the solution.
Mango Processing Technologies
Being a perishable commodity, mango is processed in various forms to:
* Protect it from chemical deterioration and microbial contamination
* Provide additional income
* Ensure adequate and continuous supply of mango products the whole year round
Processed forms of mango:
* Dried mango
* Mango chutney
* Mango jam
* Mango cubes
* Burong mangga
* Mango atsara
* Mango puree
* Mango pickles (sweet and sour blend)
* Mango candy
Showing posts with label Mango Production. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Mango Production. Show all posts
Spider,Tachinid fly,Trichogramma
Spider
Hosts
Moths and caterpillars
Description
Some spiders' eggs are laid in a cluster in silken sacs, while some species lay their egg masses covered with silks within folded leaves. Some of these sacs are attached to the mother spiders or mothers stay nearby to guard their egg sacs. Eggs usually hatch into spiderlings within three weeks. The spiderlings may remain attached to the mother for several days on some species, but for some species they are left on their own.
Spiders are not insects. They have 8 legs while insects have 6. They do not have wings whereas insects do. They have two body sections; a united head and thorax and abdomen, while insects have three; head, thorax, and abdomen.
A female can produce 200-400 eggs but only 60-80 spiderlings can hatch from these. Females can survive 2-3 months. In some species, females die after laying eggs.
All spiders are poisonous to insects but only a few species are poisonous to humans, like the Black widow and the Brown recluse.
Conservation and management
Mulching along some sections in dikes of rice paddies, in field corners, or a portion of the fields can increase the number of spiders. They can hide in the layer of mulch that serves as their alternate habitat. They can also prey on other small insects inside the mulch. Remember, that the more food the spiders can eat, the faster their population build-up will become. Cover crops are also important to provide overwintering sites of spiders’ sacs. A spider population depends on the availability of food, the habitat, and the environmental conditions. Avoid use of pesticides as much as possible, for broad-spectrum insecticides can easily kill them.
Tachinid fly
Hosts
Aphids, armyworm, beetles, bollworm, bugs, cabbage looper, cotton stainer, cutworm, grasshoppers,
hornworm, leafhoppers, mole crickets, moths, sawflies, scale insects, stem borers, stick insects.
Description
Eggs are ovate-shaped and white in color. They are found in the skin of the host insect or in leaves
near the host and are hatched when the host ingests them.
The larvae or maggots are worm-like and lack appendages like all other fly larvae. They aregreenish-white in color. They have three larval instars and then leave the hosts to pupate in thesoil. Before pupation, some mature maggots produce hard cocoons. The larval stage takes about4 days to 2 weeks depending on the climatic conditions. The newly hatched larvae enter into itshost and feed on the content before pupating into the soil. Some tachinid species are hosts' specific,
for example for a certain species; it is parasitic only on leaf rolling caterpillars, or only on sugarcanestem borer.
Pupae are oblong, yellowish and turn darkreddish as they mature.
Adults measure between 3 and 10 mm andhave very stout bristles at the tips of theirabdomens. They look very similar to the commonhousefly but are larger with stocky and soft bodies.They vary in appearance from gray black to brightly
colored, or sometimes looking like bees. Adult Tachinid flies have only 1 pair of wings. They feed on honeydews and flower pollen. Different species have varied modified sucking type mouthparts: the cutting sponging, the piercing-sucking, and lappingsponging. Adult flies are found in almost all crop habitats, either resting on foliage or feeding on
nectars and pollen. Additionally for females, they search for hosts to lay their eggs. The female adult lays her eggs near or into the larvae, or on another insect. She can lay as many as 1000-2000 eggs in her lifetime. Adults can live from 3 days to 2 months depending on the species.
Conservation
Providing sources of food like dills, parsley, clover and other herbs are the most efficient ways to conserve Trachinid flies in the agricultural ecosystems.
Trichogramma
Hosts
Trichogramma species parasitize eggs of over 200 species of moth and caterpillars. Among these are; the rice and corn stem borer, cabbageworm, tomato hornworm, Heliotis and Helicoverpa species, codling moth, cutworm, armyworm, webworm, cabbage looper, fruit worms, and sugarcane borer.
Description
Trichogramma adults are extremely small. The female adult lays her eggs on other moths' eggs. First, she examines the eggs by antennal drumming,
then drills into the eggs with her ovipositor, and lays one or more eggs inside the moth's eggs. She usually stays on or near the host eggs until all
or most of them are parasitized. When the parasitized moth's eggs turn black, the larvae parasites develop within the host eggs. The larva eats the contents of the moth's eggs. Adults emerge about 5-10 days later depending on the
temperature. Adults can live up to 14 days after emergence. Female adults can lay up to 300 eggs.
Conservation and management
Trichogramma species differ in their searching behavior, host preferences, response to environmental conditions, and suitability in biological control uses. The timing of Trichogramma releases in the field is important. Non- parasitism could be due to the use of less suitable Trichogramma strains to the host pests, environmental conditions, and untimely release of parasitoids. It is best to release of parasitoids at the beginning of a pest infestation (when moths are first seen in the field), followed by regular releases until a natural breeding population of Trichogramma is established.
An example of this approach is the corn borer control. The first release should be during the first appearance of moths and corn borers' eggs in the cornfields. Weekly releases thereafter are to ensure the Trichogramma population build-up and parasitism occurrence. The build-up of the parasitoids depends on the presence of the pest or alternative hosts and food for adults. It is important to regulary monitor pest population, egg parasitism (parasitized eggs are black in color), and the larval infestation. Trichogramma are released as pupae in parasitized host eggs. The pupae can be pasted on
cards or put in various containers. To be successful in the field, food, host eggs and shelter must be available.
Modify cropping practices by practicing crop rotation and by planting cultivars which are favorable to Trichogramma population build-up such as wild carrots, dill, golden rod, leguminous plants, and flowering vegetables. Adults feed only on nectar, pollen, and honeydew. Many of these species are found naturally occurring in agricultural and garden habitats. Many adult parasitoids and predators benefit from sources of nectar and the protection provided by refuges such as hedgerows, cover crops, and weedy borders. Avoid indiscriminate use of hazardous pesticides to ensure their presence in agricultural fields.
Ladybird beetles, Rove beetles
Ladybird beetles
Hosts
Aphids, mealybugs, scale insects, spider mites, whiteflies
Description
Eggs are yellow to orange in color, footballshaped, and are laid in circular clusters of 10 -50 eggs on the underside of leaves or near the aphid colony. Newly hatched larvae are gray or black and less than 4 mm long. They emerge as dark alligator-like flightless creatures with orange spots. Adult larvae can be gray, black, or blue with bright yellow or orange markings on the body. The larvae are elongate and slightly oblong in shape. They undergo four instars before pupating. The pupae are usually brightly patterned and can be found attached to the leaves and stems of plants where larvae have fed and developed. Adults are oval to hemispherical and strongly convex with short legs and antennae. Most species are brightly colored. Body length ranges from 0.8-16 mm. Their colors tell other predators that they are tasteless and toxic. When disturbed, some of them emit a strong smelling yellow liquid as a protection against other predators. Their colors vary from red,
orange, steel blue, yellow-brown, or yellow elytra, frequently spotted or striped with black. They feed
on pollen, nectar, water, and honeydew but aphids or other prey are necessary for egg production.
They are the best-known predators of aphids and are capable of eating up to 50-60 per day and about
5000 aphids in their lifetime.
Conservation
Lady bird beetles are found in most agricultural and garden habitats. Their presence indicates that
natural biological control is occurring. It is important to maintain habitats planted with several flowering
crops. These give the ladybird beetles varied food sources. When food is not available, they tend to
eat each other. Their beneficial predatory behavior and activities are continuous when there is no
indiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides.
Rove beetles
Hosts
maggots' eggs and larvae, mites, worms, nematodes,
and other small insects. Adults tend to be
cannibalistic, eating their own eggs and attacking
other adults when food supply is low.
Both adults and larvae are predators of root
Description
wide, pear-shaped, pale green in color, and are
covered with a gelatin-like material. These are laid
Eggs are tiny, about 0.5 mm long and 0.4 mm
by female adults in the soil among the roots of the
root-maggot infested plants. The eggs hatch 5-10
days later.
The first instar larvae are pale brown, about 1.5
mm long, slender, segmented, and tapered toward
second and third instar larvae are white, have
the anterior. They have large heads. The parasitic
rudimentary legs, and are found within the host
search for a host (pupa of maggot) in the
puparium. Before pupating, a larva will actively
surrounding soil. It will pupate in the pupa of the
maggot by entering into its cocoon and feeding its
contents, and then pupate itself inside for about 3-4
that two or more larvae enter into one maggot pupa
weeks before emerging as an adult. It is possible
Adult rove beetles are brown, reddish-brown, or
but only one will survive and mature.
black or have gray markings on the wings and
abdomen, with slender elongate bodies. Their wing
covers are shorter than the abdomen where most
larvae have well-developed 'jaws' cross in front of
part of the abdomen is exposed. Both adults and
matter but are also found in moist agricultural soils
the head. They live mostly in decaying organic
or in habitats where large numbers of fly larvae live.
When disturbed, they run very fast, with their
abdomen lifted upward, like that of scorpions. Adults
are good fliers as well.
Conservation
around fields for rove beetles love to stay in moist
Provide ground covers or mulches within and
alternative habitats and plant flowering borders,
decaying organic matter; provide hiding sites and
hedges, and other perennial habitats as a source of
food and shelter; and provide protection by not
spraying broad spectrum pesticides.
Ground beetle, Hoverfly,Lacewing
Ground beetle
Hosts
Slugs, snails, cutworms, cabbage root maggots, grubs and insect pupae, and small caterpillars
Description
Eggs are normally laid singly in the soil. Larva is elongated and tapered toward the end,
worm-like in appearance and have a large headdirected forward. Pupa is brownish black, small and found in the soil. Adult ground beetles or Carabids are about 2- 6cm long, dark shiny brown to metallic black, blue, green, purple, or multi-colored. They vary in shapes,- from elongated to heavy-bodied, - tapered head end with threadlike antennae, and have a ringed wing cover. Their heads are usually smaller than their thorax. Both adults and larvae have strong pincher-like mandibles. They have prominent long legs, which make them fast moving insects. Most species are nocturnal and they hide during the
day in soil crevices, under rocks and stones, decaying logs, leaf litter, or composting materials. When disturbed or when other vertebrates prey upon them, they emit an odor or gas, as a type of defense mechanism, preventing them from being eaten by other predators. Ground beetles live on or
below the ground, hence the name. Development from the egg to the adult stage takes about a year, although adults may live 2 to 3 years or longer.
Conservation
1. Practice mulching in some sections of your field to provide a habitat for the ground beetles.
2. Provide permanent beds and perennial plantings to protect population.
3. Plant white clover and/or amaranth as ground covers.
Hoverfly
Hosts
Aphids, thrips, psyllids, scale insects, small caterpillars, and larvae of Heliotes
Description
Eggs are tiny, about 1mm in size, ovateshaped, and glistening white. These are found laid
singly and close to the developing aphid colony in the leaves, shoots, or stems of the plants. They
hatch within 2-3 days.
The larvae, known as Syrphids, are legless slug like maggots, about 1-13mm in length depending on their larval stages. They usually have a mottled gray, beige, or light green color. They lift their pointed heads to look for preys. Once preys are located, their mouthparts suck out the contents of the preys. Larvae are frequently found feeding on aphids in the sheltered and curled portion of leaves. They blend well with their habitat and therefore they must be looked for closely to locate them. Pupae are teardrops shaped and are found in the soil surface or in the plant's foliage. Adult hoverflies are true flies with only two wings instead of four which most insects have.
Adults are large and beautiful insects about 13 mm long. They have a dark head, a dark thorax, and a banded yellow and black abdomen. They closely resemble bees or wasps rather than flies. Their habit of hovering like humming birds gave them the names hoverflies or flower flies. They feed on
pollen, nectar, and honeydew. They are goodpollinators.
Conservation
Hoverflies are attracted to all flowering plants but even more so to small-flowered herbs like wild
mustard, coriander, dill, lupines, sunflower, and fennel. It is advisable to have multiple crops as
adults basically feed on pollen and nectar and it is advisable to allow flowering weeds such as wild
carrot and yarrow to grow between crop plants. Hoverflies' larvae are most noticeable in the latter
half of the growing season when aphids are established.
Lacewing
Hosts
Aphids, leafminer, mealybugs, thrips, whitefly,armyworms, bollworms, cabbage worm, codling
moths, corn borer, cutworm, DBM, fruitworm,
leafhopper nymphs and eggs, potato beetle, scale
insects, spider mites, and caterpillars of most pest
moths. If given the chance, they can also prey on
adult pests.
Description
underside of leaves. Each egg is attached to the topof a hair-like filament. Eggs are pale green in color. Eggs are found on slender stalks or on the
Larvae are known as aphid lions. Newly hatched, they are grayish-brown in color. Upon emerging, larvae immediately look for food. They grow to about 1 cm in length. They attack their prey by taking them with their large sucking jaws and injecting paralyzing poison, and then sucking out the body fluids of the pest. A larva can eat 200 or more pests or pest eggs a week. An older larva can consume 30-50 aphids per day. It can consume more than 400 aphids during its development. The larvae resemble alligators with pincers like jaw. However, they become cannibalistic if no other prey is available. They feed for 3 to 4 weeks and molt three times before pupation. They cover their bodies with prey debris.
Pupae are cocoons with silken threads. These are found in cracks and crevices. The pupal stage lasts for approximately 5 days.
Adults are green to yellowish-green with four, delicate transparent wings that have many veins and cross veins. Adults are about 18 mm long, with long hair-like antennae and red-gold eyes. Each adult female may deposit more than 100 eggs. Many species of adult lacewings do not prey on pests. They feed on nectar, pollen, and honeydew. An adult will live for about four to six weeks depending on the climatic conditions.
of pollen and nectar for adults. Provide source of water during dry season.
Conservation
Flowering plants such as dill, cosmos, sunflower, carrots, and dandelions are good sourceof pollen and nectar for adults. Provide source of water during dry season.
Scab,Braconids,Damsel bugs,Encarsia
Scab
Symptoms
Attacked leaves have dark-brown to black circular and somewhat angular lesions. As the lesions enlarge, they become white to gray with narrow and dark margins. Attacked stems have grayish and irregular blotches. Infected fruit's skin has blemishes. The early infection appears as grayish-brown lesions with irregular margins. As the disease develops, it causes cracked and corky appearance. Even if the disease is only found on the skin, the numerous spots lessen the appeal of the consumers.
Prevention and control
Hot water treatment (refer to p. 17, Anthracnose,
prevention and control)
Stem-end rot
Symptoms
The infected fruit has initially violet lesion at the stem-end, turning light-brown, and finally becoming black. The inner tissues of the fruit become soft and watery.
Prevention and control
Hot water treatment (refer to p. 17, Anthracnose, prevention and control)
Natural enemies
Braconids
Hosts
Ants, aphids, armyworms, beetle's larvae, bollworms, cabbageworms, caterpillars, codling moths, corn borers, cutworms, imported tent caterpillars, leafhoppers, leafminers, maggots, midges, plant bugs, scales, tomato hornworms, weevils, and many more.
Description
Eggs and larvae of Bracons are found inside the hosts' bodies.
The larvae are tiny, cream-colored grubs that
feed in or on other insects. Larvae molt five times and undergo 5 instars.
Pupae of some species live and pupate within the host until they mature; others pupate in silken cocoons on the outside of the body of the host, while others spin silken cocoons away from the host.
Adult wasps are tiny, about 2.5 mm in size, slender black or brown with threadlike waists. Female wasps lay eggs into the eggs of hosts' pests but prefer caterpillars' bodies.
In cases where aphids are the host pests, aphids are not killed instantly. Aphids continue to feed on plants tissues until the Braconid larvae inside their bodies completely consume them. The fully-grown Braconid larvae cement the dead aphids to the leaf surface making aphids' shells black and mummified. About a week later, the adult Bracon wasps cut round holes in the mummies and emerge. The empty mummies remain on the leaf. The presence of mummies in a colony of aphids is a sign
that Bracons are present.
Adult Bracons feed on nectar, honeydew, or pollen before laying eggs. Dill, parsley, yarrow, zinnia, clover, lfalfa, parsley, cosmos, sunflower, and marigold are flowering crops that attract the native braconid opulations and provide good habitats for them.
Damsel bugs
Hosts
Aphids, armyworms, asparagus beetle, Colorado potato beetle eggs and nymphs, corn earworm, corn borer, imported cabbageworm, leafhoppers, mites, moth eggs, sawfly larvae, and tarnished plant bug nymphs. Although they can survive for about two weeks without food, they will eat each other if no other prey is available.
Description
Eggs are deposited in soft plant tissues where they are so difficult to find.
Nymphs resemble adults and develop through 5 nymphal stages in about 50 days.
Adults are tiny, about 2-4 mm long, with slender bodies and are yellowish or gray or reddish-brown in color. They have piercing-sucking mouthparts, a 4- segmented beak, elongated heads, and 4 long segmented antennae. They are fast runners with long slender back legs and enlarged forelegs for grasping prey. They are commonly found in most agricultural crops, especially legumes, throughout the year. Adults begin laying eggs soon after emergence.
Conservation
They prefer to live in soybeans, grassy fields, and alfalfa. You can collect damsel bugs in alfalfa fields and release them around your garden.
Encarsia
Hosts
Various whitefly species
Description
Eggs are found inside the body of the host larva.
The larvae develop within the whitefly larvae passing through four larval stages. The host pupa turns black when Encarsia pupates inside the whitefly. Adult wasps emerge from the parasitized pupae by chewing a hole in the top of the scale. Adults are very tiny wasps, about 1 mm in size. These parasitic wasps can look actively and effectively for whiteflies. They can cover distances of 10-30 m looking for hosts. Adult females attack young whitefly larvae by stinging and laying eggs inside them. An adult female wasp can lay 60-100
eggs. The life cycle is completed within 2-4 weeks depending on the climatic conditions. Adults can live
for 30 days but are active for about 10 days. Adult wasps feed on honeydew and the body fluids of whitefly larvae. They also feed directly on the scales. However, honeydew restricts their movements so that it is difficult for them to have a wider feeding coverage. With the exception of the adult, all stages of Encarsia occur inside the whitefly host.
Conservation
Conserving natural enemies is probably the most important practice farmers could do. Practicing
multiple cropping (including flowering crops) provides pollen, honeydew, and nectar for adult
wasps. The practice can increase the diversity of habitats that provide shelter and other food sources
to the natural enemies. Some Encarsia species are native to crop production environments. When introduced, they
have the tendency to adapt to the local environments. Weekly field monitoring or a visual inspection of
plants is important to notice the presence of pests and beneficial insects in order to consider when to
make pest management decisions.
Anthracnose
Diseases
Anthracnose
Symptoms
Infected leaves have shot-hole spots. Affected flowers and young fruits are blighted and fall down. On green fruits, tiny brown spots develop that will only enlarge after harvest. The sunken spots enlarge on a ripening fruit and found anywhere on the peel in tear-shaped patterns. Eventually, the whole fruit rots and fungal fruiting bodies are formed on the rotten surfaces.
Prevention and control
Hot water treatment
Dipping newly harvested fruits in hot water (53°C for 5-10 minutes) minimizes anthracnose and stem-end rot infestations. Anthracnose will be reduced by 83% and stem-end rot by 100%. To facilitate heat water treatment, you need dipping tank, thermometer, and wire baskets. The water should have a uniform temperature within the tank to be effective. After dipping the fruits in hot water, dip them in tap water to about two hours or place them in a well ventilated room to cool down.
Pink disease
Symptoms
The first stage of infection is small cracks with fungal growth are found on the bark. The bark becomes pink and rotten as the disease develops. In heavy infestation, the disease that surrounds the trunk eventually withers and dies.
Prevention and control
1. Prune the infected branches. Disinfect the cut
surfaces with bleach solution at a ratio of: 1 part
bleach and 5 parts water. When the branch is dry,
varnish it with house paint.
2. Copper spray
Copper spray ( Method of preparation Mix 3 ½ tbsp of copper sulphate, 10 tbsp of hydrated lime and 1 gallon of water (4 liters of water) in a plastic bucket Stir using wooden stick Pests controlled Flea beetles Anthracnose Bacterial blight Bacterial wilt Black spot Downy mildew Late blight Powdery mildew Rust and many other disease causing pathogens Cautions Use only plastic or any non-corrosive containers Shake or stir to prevent extract from clogging Spray only on dry and sunny day, preferably early morning |
Scales
Scales
Damage
Scales remove plant saps by using their sucking mouthparts. Leaves become stunted and turn yellow and the twigs and branches dieback. Some scale species produce honeydews which they secrete while feeding. Honeydews on fruits, leaves, twigs, branches, and barks attract black sooty molds to feed and grow, causing these plant parts to blacken.
Description
1. Armored scales (Diaspididae) Armored scales are small, about 3 mm long. Their colors vary from white, yellow, gray, reddish or purplish. Adults are oval or round, hard bumps, and sometimes bearing a nipple or
dimple in the center. They do not produce honeydews but they secrete armor wax in an oyster shell or circular pattern. They remain attached to the host plant when shells are lifted up.
2. Soft Scales (Coccoidae) The eggs are covered or found under the mother scales. Eggs hatch into crawlers (nymphs), which are flattened and looking like dusts on the plant surface. Adult females are either oval or round, soft, legless bumps, and are wingless. Males are tiny yellow-winged soft scales. Soft scales secrete honeydews which attract ants. The shells of the soft scales are not left on the plant when lifted up. The soft covering they secrete cannot be separated from the scale's body. Soft scales typically move between branches and leaves during their lifecycle.
Control measures
Other solutions
Horticultural oil sprays
Horticultural oils are concentrated and must be mixed with water. Spray 2% solution against insects and mites. To make a 2% solution, pour 1/3-cup oil into a 1-gallon container, and then fill with water to make a 1-gallon solution. For a 3% solution, start with ½ cup of oil. Apply successive sprays at least 6 weeks apart. You can apply 1% oil solution by mixing 2.5 tbsp of oil in 1 gallon of water.
Following the mineral oil spray, use a highpressure water jet treatment to dislodge dead scales from trees. It is important to remove the dead scales remaining on the plant because this will ensure protection against newly hatched scales. To dislodge living scales is to use a forceful jet of water to 'power wash' them from barks.
Application of Vaseline, camphor, eucalyptus oils should be tested on small area, prior to large scale spraying because some leaves are sensitive to these oils. If done for the first time, ask for assistance from your local agricultural office. Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Mango Production
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